Mind games: let's play with the evolving association between physical activity and academic achievement.

Shelton, Steve

According to Ratey and Hagerman (2008), "there are fifty-two million children, from kindergarten through twelth [sic] grade, who attend public and private schools in the United States" (p. 31). My daughter, Joci, will join the masses that begin kindergarten next year and although she is not yet a student in the public school system, she is a perfect example of why quality physical education for school age children is so important.

Joci has learned a great deal about her world through movement experiences. In just four years, she has progressed from controlling her head and neck, to rolling over, pulling up, crawling, walking, running, jumping, and, even falling down quite a bit. If everyone could make such incredible physical progress in the span of four years we would all be Olympic gold medalists.

Her ability to learn about her world through movement may soon take a different and unfortunate turn. Soon she will be asked to stand in a line and sit at a desk for long periods of time as if somehow, when one begins school, a switch is turned off and the need to move is replaced by the need for teachers and administrators to meet assigned benchmarks and measure progress based upon standardized tests and federal mandates.

Joci will receive just thirty minutes of physical education two days each week during her first year in school and that is not enough. She is an example of what can occur when children are allowed to learn about their surroundings through movement. It is a matter of the greatest importance that physical education teachers in public schools recognize the significant impact they can have upon their students and their ability to discover their world kinesthetically.

Physical education is critical to the education of children and young adults. Examples abound in both the literature and research findings of the link between physical activity and academic progress. Topics to be explored include: the challenges students and educators confront regarding health, literacy, and the achievement gap; the potential cognitive benefits of physical exercise; whether or not being physically active results in an advantage in learning; and common sense suggestions for incorporating "mind games" into the curriculum.

At no time in America's history of public education have the stakes been so high. Our children are less active and more physically out of shape than ever before.

Childhood obesity rates have risen at an alarming 35% in the past decade (Sherman, Collins, & Donnelly, 2007). Health problems such as type 2 diabetes and childhood asthma have resulted from this rapidly developing epidemic (Ehrlich, 2008). Lack of movement in today's high-tech society and the associated health implications from this sedentary lifestyle have greatly impacted our children's overall health because so many children watch a television, use a computer or play a video game instead of exercise (Summerford, 2001).

This lack of physical activity, combined with poor nutrition, seems to contribute most to this current obesity epidemic. Young children are facing illnesses that were once associated almost exclusively with adults. According to Prosser and Jiang (2008), "The evidence demonstrates that overweight and obese children suffer the same health problems as obese adults and suffer increased morbidity during adulthood" (p. 11).

The news is just as troubling on the literacy front. Mears (2003) reported that literacy rates in the United States have consistently dropped for years. Cornett and Blankenship (1990) found, "each year, an additional 2.3 million American children become illiterate adults, unable to perform everyday tasks such as reading warnings, street signs, menus, or filling out job applications" (as cited in Mears, 2003, p. 36). Because of this trend, there has been a renewed commitment to dedicate more time and resources to literacy development, often at the expense of other subjects such as physical education. This reduction in physical activity might actually inhibit instead of promote literacy development and contribute to the already alarming rise in obesity rates in this country (Mears, 2003).

Hispanic and African American students seem to be at greatest risk for lower academic performance and higher overweight and obesity rates (Burton & VanHeest, 2007). Evans (2005) reported, "The achievement gap, defined as the persistent gap in academic performance of African American and Hispanic students when compared to White and Asian American students, has been characterized as the most perplexing issue currently confronting American schools" (as cited in Burton & Van Heest, 2007, p. 212). According to Ogden et al. (2006) these minority students are also more at-risk for becoming overweight. Female minority students also appear to have higher rates of obesity as compared to non-minority female students (as cited in Burton & VanHeest, 2007, pp. 212-213). Burton and VanHeest (2007) argued there is a connection between obesity and the achievement gap among these at-risk children and physical activity may promote academic achievement and reduce levels of overweight students.

In response to increasing pressure for students to perform well on standardized tests, many school systems have limited their curricular offerings to emphasize core subjects such as mathematics, reading, and science. Administrators and teachers are now teaching students test-taking strategies and focusing on material those students will be tested on, leaving out material that will not be on the tests. In 2006 The Center on Education Policy found the following:

Seventy percent of schools have indicated a narrowing of the curriculum by at least one course, and in many cases reported that students struggling to reach academic standards are receiving double reading and math periods at the expense of other activities. (as cited in Burton & VanHeest, 2007, p. 215)

As the evidence mounts that public schools and their students are facing increasing physical and academic challenges, research continues to suggest that there may be an association between physical activity and improved academic performance. There is increasing evidence suggesting "exercise is strongly correlated with increased brain mass, better cognition, mood regulation, and new cell production" (Jensen, 2008, p. 412).

Being cautious not to make any overstatements, Blaydes (2001) reported students who are physically active will have a learning advantage that inactive children will not have. She argued that physical education programs should not be eliminated because of the positive physical and cognitive benefits associated with physical activity.

It is clear that physical activity increases circulation and strengthens muscles and bones but there is an increasing focus on what happens to the brain during and immediately after periods of exercise. Worrell, Kovar and Oldfather (2003) reported exercise that is aerobic in nature can increase the brain's blood supply. This increased blood supply helps feed the brain with nutrients such as oxygen and glucose (Blaydes, 2001). Laboratory experiments with mice have shown physical activity can cause chemical changes in the brain which sparks learning by increasing the number of brain cells in the hippocampus, an area of the brain essential for memory and learning (Summerford, 2001). Blaydes (2001) also suggested physical activity can improve memory and one's learning state with these effects lasting up to 60 minutes, depending on the individual. Although more research is needed, all of these factors may allow physical educators to justify their programs as an equal among other subject areas.

Research on the subject has produced encouraging findings. One of the most notable studies conducted in recent years linking physical fitness and overall academic performance was conducted by the California Department of Education (CDE). The studies examined the overall scores on the FitnessGram physical assessment battery and the Stanford Achievement Test and found a distinct relationship between academic performance and physical fitness (Vail, 2006).

John Ratey and Eric Hagerman highlighted the CDE statewide study in their book, Spark (2008). They reported the CDE looked at the correlated scores from these tests for more than one million students over the course of a five year period and consistently found physically fit students scored better on their academic tests than their unfit peers. They also noted that in 2002, the CDE took a closer look at how socio-economic status influenced the outcome of these tests. "As expected, students with a higher standard of living scored better on the academic tests, but the results also showed that within the lower-income students, fitter kids scored better than unfit kids" (Ratey & Hagerman, 2008, pp. 21-22).

Other researchers have studied the relationship between cognitive function and fitness levels in preadolescents. Vail (2006) reported that University of Illinois colleagues Charles Hillman and Darla Castelli have found strong relationships between math scores from the Illinois Standards Achievement Test and students' aerobic fitness scores. "In addition to the correlation between aerobic fitness and math, the researchers found that the higher the students' Body Mass Index, the lower their scores" (Vail, 2006, p. 31). In other words, students who are healthier with a lower BMI are more prepared to learn (Vail, 2006).

If common sense tells us healthy children learn better, then what do statistics tell us about schools that have implemented a coordinated approach to school health with a focus on physical activity, school nutrition, and health education? Ehrlich (2008) stated students' behavior, performance, and even their attendance can get a boost when the health needs of pupils are addressed when focusing on the whole child.

She reported on a school health initiative in a small school division in McComb, Mississippi, where the majority of students live in poverty. In addition to the obvious components of nutrition, physical activity, and health education, former Superintendent Pat Cooper's program also included employee wellness, parental involvement, and mental health services (Ehrlich, 2008).

"The district has seen improvement in its students' academic achievement. Between 1996 and 2005, dropout rates decreased from 31 percent to 11 percent, and graduation rates increased to 95 percent" (Ehrlich, 2008, p. 43). Ehrlich also found the school system enjoyed improved scores on all standardized tests in each grade level except eighth, which remained unchanged.

Although some school leaders acknowledge the importance of such research and statistical information, budgetary constraints and pressure to improve test scores have caused school leaders to question the importance of physical education (Trost, 2007). According to the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (2006) "in 1991, 42% of students attended daily physical education classes; by 2003 that percentage dropped to 28%" (as cited in Burton & VanHeest, 2007, p. 215). Lee, Burgeson, Fulton, and Spain (2007) noted "the Surgeon General recommends children should engage in 60 minutes of moderate activity most days of the week, yet estimates show that only 3.8 percent of elementary schools provide daily physical education" (as cited in Trost, 2007, The Impact of Schools on Physical Activity section, para. 1).

According to Ehrlich (2008), "the evidence suggests that spending more time in physical education class did not have a negative effect on students' standardized test scores, even though less time was available for other academic subjects" (p. 43). Blaydes (2001) also noted "if physical education is cut from our schools, one eighth of human intelligence is eliminated. Physical education is one of the few disciplines that incorporate most of the eight identified intelligences simultaneously" (p. 12). "If exercise does in fact promote brain function and impact cognitive function, all educators must be concerned with the possibility of the reduction or total elimination of physical education programs within school districts" (Tremarche, Robinson, & Graham, 2007, Introduction section, para. 9).

Although most physical educators are not researchers, these teachers should still embrace such research findings to create dynamic movement programs for their students particularly at a young age. Prosser and Jiang (2008) reported "there is moderate to strong evidence to suggest that physical activity habits developed during childhood may track into late childhood and adolescence. Childhood is a key time within the lifespan to establish physical activity behaviours [sic]" (p. 11).

According to Hannaford (1995), "eighty five percent of school age children are natural kinesthetic learners" (as cited in Blaydes, 2001, p. 11). This statistic is enough to suggest that all educators should tap into kinesthetic strategies to reach more students (Blaydes, 2001). Vail (2006) reported "learning through physical activity, whether it's in PE or in the regular classroom, helps many students who have trouble concentrating, sitting still, and paying attention" (p. 33). Worrell et al. (2003) suggested "physical educators should not only promote the development of physical skills but also assist with the total academic development of their students" (p. 12).

Using cross lateral movements appears to be one way physical educators can help students stay in shape and organize brain functions simultaneously. Dennison (1989) and Hannaford (1995) suggested the following:

Crossing the midline integrates brain hemispheres to enable the brain to organize itself. When students perform cross lateral activities, blood flow is increased in all parts of the brain making it more alert and energized for stronger, more cohesive learning. Movements that cross the midline unify the cognitive and motor regions of the brain: the cerebellum, basal ganglia, and corpus callosum while stimulating the productions of neurotrophins that increase the number of synaptic connections. (as cited in Blaydes, 2001, p. 11)

Worrell et al. (2003) suggested additional research is necessary before such claims can be fully supported. "In the meantime, individual teachers are challenged to evaluate the effectiveness of such cerebral movements. Outside the research arena, many teachers report positive physical, academic, and social changes in students who participate in "brain-based" activities" (Worrell et al., 2003, p. 12).

Pica (2006) looked at connections physical educators can make between mathematics, emergent literacy, and physical activity. In other words, "how the use of the bodily/kinesthetic intelligence can help promote the highly valued logical/mathematical and linguistic intelligences" (Pica, 2006, p. 31). She explained words such as over, under, and through can be experienced in a physical education class and therefore take on greater meaning to students who are learning about prepositions. Similarly, adjectives and adverbs can be learned as students perform a slow walk or move lightly. Word comprehension may be enhanced by physically acting out action words like slither and stomp and descriptive words like strong and gentle. Additionally, forming sequences in dances and movement routines is similar to forming sentences by linking words together. "Speaking and listening to one another, to cooperatively solve movement problems, causes children to use and expand their vocabularies as well as learn important lessons in communication" (Pica, 2006, p. 32).

Blaydes (2001) also claimed students can strengthen eye muscles during physical education by tracking objects, manipulating equipment, playing target games, and navigating through general space. "One of the reasons students have trouble with reading is because of the lack of eye fitness. When students watch screens, their eyes lock in constant distant vision, and the muscles that control eye movement atrophy" (Blaydes, 2001, p. 11).

Physical education is also critical to the education of children and young adults because of the health benefits of physical activity. Vail (2006) reported the following: Some in the health and physical education fields are leery of making a case for more PE and recess on the basis of a possible link to improved academic performance. Schools should consider the health benefits of physical activity, even if exercise does or does not affect test scores, says Dr. Howard Taras, a San Diego pediatrician who works with school districts in southern California. After all, he says, schools do many other things purely for health reasons, such as provide immunizations. (p. 32)

Although it is apparent more research is needed to fully understand the complex link between physical activity and academic progress, it appears safe to say there is an important association for all teachers to explore and embrace. As next year's kindergarteners turn five- years old and enter public and private schools, one can only hope these new students will enjoy an education that values physical activity as an important part of academic development where teachers incorporate more "mind games" in their curricula.

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REFERENCES

Blaydes, J. (2001, May). Advocacy: A case for daily quality physical education. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 12(3), 9-12. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database.

Burton, L., & VanHeest, J. (2007, May). The importance of physical activity in closing the achievement gap. Quest (00336297), 59(2), 212-218. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database.

Ehrlich, G. (2008, October). Health = performance. American School Board Journal, 196(10), 42-44. Retrieved November 10, 2008, from Education Research Complete database.

Jensen, E. (2008, February). A fresh look at brain-based education. Phi Delta Kappan, 89(6), 408-417. Retrieved November 10, 2008, from Education Research Complete database.

Mears, B. (2003, September). The abcs of effective reading integration. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 14(5), 36. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database.

Pica, R. (2006, May). Learning in leaps and bounds. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 17(3), 31-34. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database.

Prosser, L., & Jiang, X. (2008, April). Relationship between school physical activity and academic performance of children. International Journal of Learning, 15(3), 11-16. Retrieved November 10, 2008, from Education Research Complete database.

Ratey, J. J. & Hagerman, E. (2008). Spark: The revolutionary new science of exercise and the brain. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company.

Sherman, K., Collins, B., & Donnelly, K. (2007, March). Let's get moving!. Teaching Pre K-8, 37(6), 48-49. Retrieved November 10, 2008, from Education Research Complete database.

Summerford, C. (2001, May). What is the impact of exercise on brain function for academic learning. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 12(3), 6-8. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database.

Tremarche, P., Robinson, E., & Graham, L. (2007, Spring). Physical education and its effect on elementary testing results. Physical Educator, 64(2), 58-64. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database.

Trost, S. G. (2007, Fall). Active education: Physical education, physical activity and academic performance research brief. Active Living Research. Retrieved November 10, 2008, from http://www.activelivingresearch.org/files/Active_Ed.pdf

Vail, K. (2006, March). Mind and body. American School Board Journal, 193(3), 30-33. Retrieved November 10, 2008, from Education Research Complete database.

Worrell, V., Kovar, S., & Oldfather, S. (2003, November). Brain/ body connection as it relates to physical education. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 14(6), 12-26. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database.

By Steve Shelton, Physical Education Specialist, Christiansburg Elementary School, M.S. Student, Physical Education Teacher Education, West Virginia University